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Fuels

NATURAL GAS
PROPANE
ELECTRICITY
ETHANOL
BIODIESEL

Natural Gas

Basics

Natural gas is an odorless, gaseous mixture of hydrocarbons—predominantly methane (CH4). It accounts for about a quarter of the energy used in the United States. About one-third goes to residential and commercial uses, such as heating and cooking; one-third to industrial uses; and one-third to electric power production. Although natural gas is a clean-burning alternative fuel that has long been used to power chartnatural gas vehicles, only about one-tenth of 1% is used for transportation fuel.

The vast majority of natural gas in the United States is considered a fossil fuel because it is made from sources formed over millions of years by the action of heat and pressure on organic materials. Alternatively, renewable natural gas (RNG), also known as biomethane, is produced from organic materials—such as waste from landfills and livestock—through anaerobic digestion. RNG qualifies as an advanced biofuel under the Renewable Fuel Standard.

Because RNG is chemically identical to fossil-derived conventional natural gas, it can use the existing natural gas distribution system and must be compressed or liquefied for use in vehicles.

CNG and LNG as Transportation Fuels

Two forms of natural gas are currently used in vehicles: compressed natural gas (CNG) and liquefied natural gas (LNG). Both are domestically produced, relatively low priced, and commercially available. Considered alternative fuels under the Energy Policy Act of 1992, CNG and LNG are sold in units of gasoline or diesel gallon equivalents (GGEs or DGEs) based on the energy content of a gallon of gasoline or diesel fuel.

Compressed Natural Gas

CNG is produced by compressing natural gas to less than 1% of its volume at standard atmospheric pressure. To provide adequate driving range, CNG is stored onboard a vehicle in a compressed gaseous state within cylinders at a pressure of 3,000 to 3,600 pounds per square inch.

CNG is used in light-, medium-, and heavy-duty applications. A CNG-powered vehicle gets about the same fuel economy as a conventional gasoline vehicle on a GGE basis. A GGE equals about 5.66 pounds of CNG.

Liquefied Natural Gas

Liquefied natural gas, or LNG, is natural gas in its liquid form. LNG is produced by purifying natural gas and super-cooling it to -260°F to turn it into a liquid. During the process known as liquefaction, natural gas is cooled below its boiling point, removing most of the compounds found in the fuel. The remaining natural gas is primarily methane with small amounts of other hydrocarbons.

Because of LNG’s relatively high production cost as well as the need to store it in expensive cryogenic tanks, the fuel’s widespread use in commercial applications has been limited. LNG must be kept at cold temperatures and is stored in double-walled, vacuum-insulated pressure vessels. LNG is suitable for trucks that require longer ranges because liquid is more dense than gas (CNG) and, therefore, more energy can be stored by volume in a given tank. LNG is typically used in medium- and heavy-duty vehicles. A GGE equals about 1.5 gallons of LNG.

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Energy Security

In 2013, the United States imported about 33% of the petroleum it consumed, and transportation accounted for more than 70% of total U.S. petroleum consumption. With much of the world’s petroleum reserves located in politically volatile countries, the United States is vulnerable to supply disruptions. However, because U.S. natural gas reserves are abundant, this alternative fuel can be domestically produced and used to offset the petroleum currently being imported for transportation use.

Vehicle Performance

Natural gas vehicles (NGVs) are similar to gasoline or diesel vehicles with regard to power, acceleration, and cruising speed. The driving range of NGVs is generally less than that of comparable gasoline and diesel vehicles because, with natural gas, less overall energy content can be stored in the same size tank as the more energy dense gasoline or diesel fuels. Extra natural gas storage tanks or the use of LNG can help increase range for larger vehicles.

In heavy-duty vehicles, dual-fuel, compression-ignited engines are slightly more fuel-efficient than spark-ignited dedicated natural gas engines. However, a dual-fuel engine increases the complexity of the fuel-storage system by requiring storage of both types of fuel.

Infrastructure and Vehicle Availability

A wide variety of new, heavy-duty natural gas vehicles are available from U.S. original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). Although the number of available light-duty natural gas vehicles from OEMs is limited, the choices are steadily growing. For availability, see theAlternative Fuel and Advanced Vehicle Search or the Clean Cities 2015 Vehicle Buyers Guide(PDF).

Fleets and consumers also have the option of reliably converting existing gasoline or diesel vehicles for natural gas operation using qualified system retrofitters. It is critical that all vehicle and engine conversions meet the emissions and safety regulations and standards instituted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, the National Fire Protection Agency’s NFPA 52 Vehicular Gaseous Fuel Systems Code, and state agencies like the California Air Resources Board.

Although the United States has an extensive natural gas distribution system in place, vehicle fueling infrastructure is limited. Therefore, fleets may need to install their own natural gas infrastructure, which can be costly. Finding partners who will commit to use the infrastructure can improve the payback period.

Public Health and Emissions

Compared with vehicles fueled by conventional diesel and gasoline, natural gas vehicles can produce lower levels of some emissions. And because CNG fuel systems are completely sealed, CNG vehicles produce no evaporative emissions.

Propane

Basics

Also known as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) or propane autogas, propane is a clean-burning, high-energy alternative fuel that’s been used for decades to power light-, medium- and heavy-duty propane vehicles.

Propane is a three-carbon alkane gas (C3H8). It is stored under pressure inside a tank and is a colorless, odorless liquid. As pressure is released, the liquid propane vaporizes and turns into gas that is used in combustion. An odorant, ethyl mercaptan, is added for leak detection. (See fuel properties.)chart (1)

Propane has a high octane rating, making it an excellent choice for spark-ignited internal combustion engines. It presents no threat to soil, surface water, or groundwater. Propane is produced as a by-product of natural gas processing and crude oil refining. It accounts for about 2% of the energy used in the United States. Of that, less than 2% is used for transportation fuel. Its main uses include home and water heating, cooking and refrigerating food, clothes drying, powering farm and industrial equipment. Rural areas without natural gas service commonly rely on propane as a residential energy source. The chemical industry uses propane as a raw material for making plastics and other compounds.

Propane as an Alternative Fuel

Interest in propane as an alternative transportation fuel stems mainly from its domestic availability, high-energy density, clean-burning qualities, and its relatively low cost. It is the world’s third most common transportation fuel and is considered an alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992.

Propane autogas is specified as HD-5 propane and is a mixture of propane with smaller amounts of other gases. According to the Gas Processors Association’s HD-5 specification for propane, it must consist of at least 90% propane, no more than 5% propylene, and 5% other gases, primarily butane and butylene. (See fuel properties.)

Propane is stored onboard a vehicle in a tank pressurized to about 150 pounds per square inch—about twice the pressure of an inflated truck tire. Under this pressure, propane becomes a liquid with an energy density 270 times greater than the gaseous form. Propane has a higher octane rating than gasoline, which prevents engine knock. However, it has a lower Btu rating than gasoline, so it takes more fuel to drive the same distance. Propane’s clean burning characteristics allow the engine to have increased service life.

To find the fuel, see propane fueling station locations. For fuel costs, see the Alternative Fuel Price Report.

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Energy Security

In 2013, the United States imported about 33% of the petroleum it consumed and transportation accounted for more than 70% of total U.S. petroleum consumption. With much of the worldwide petroleum reserves located in politically volatile countries, the United States is vulnerable to supply disruptions.

Fueling vehicles with propane is one way to diversify U.S. transportation fuels. The vast majority of propane consumed in the United States is produced here and distributed via an established infrastructure. Using propane vehicles instead of conventional vehicles increases U.S. energy security.

Vehicle and Infrastructure Availability

A variety of light-, medium-, and heavy-duty propane vehicle models are available through original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and select dealerships. For options, see the Alternative Fuel and Advanced Vehicle Search, the Clean Cities 2013 Vehicle Buyer’s Guide(PDF) or the Clean Cities Guide to Alternative Fuel and Advanced Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles(PDF).

While propane vehicles can cost several thousand dollars more than comparable gasoline vehicles, the cost of propane is typically lower than gasoline, so the return on investment can be quick. Fleets and consumers also have the option of economically, safely, and reliably converting in-use light-, medium-, and heavy-duty gasoline or diesel vehicles for propane operation using qualified system retrofitters. It’s critical that all vehicle and engine conversions meet the emissions and safety regulations and standards instituted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, and state agencies like the California Air Resources Board. Learn about propane vehicle conversions.

By using the AFDC Station Locator tool, fleets and private users can identify public and private stations near them. Propane stations are categorized as either primary or secondary, and the methodologies section explains the categories. Fleets can use existing public infrastructure or work with local propane marketers to establish private infrastructure. It is important that fleets understand how to negotiate a supply contract. Costs will depend on the volume of fuel that’s indicated in the contract and the complexity of the equipment being installed. Learn more about the cost of propane infrastructure(PDF).

Fuel Economy and Performance

Propane at primary infrastructure sites costs less than gasoline and offers a comparable driving range to conventional fuel. Propane has a higher octane rating than gasoline (104 to 112 compared with 87 to 92 for gasoline) and potentially more horsepower, but its lower Btu rating results in lower fuel economy. However, the price per gallon can quickly offset the lower fuel economy.

Lower maintenance costs are one reason behind propane’s popularity for high-mileage vehicles. Propane’s high octane combined with its low-carbon and low oil-contamination characteristics have resulted in improved engine life compared to conventional gasoline engines. Because the fuel’s mixture of propane and air is completely gaseous, cold start problems associated with liquid fuel can be reduced.

Public Health and Emissions

Compared with vehicles fueled by conventional diesel and gasoline, propane vehicles can produce lower amounts of some harmful air pollutants and greenhouse gases, depending on vehicle type, drive cycle, and engine calibration. Learn more about propane emissions.

Electricity

Basics

Electricity is considered an alternative fuel under the Energy Policy Act of 1992. Electricity can be produced from a variety of energy sources, including oil, coal, nuclear energy, hydropower, natural gas, wind energy, solar energy, and stored hydrogen. Plug-in vehicles are capable of drawing electricity from off-board electrical power sources (generally the electricity grid) and storing it in batteries. Though not yet widely available, fuel cell vehicles use hydrogen to generate electricity onboard the vehicle. chart (2)

Powering Vehicles with Electricity

In plug-in electric vehicles, onboard rechargeable batteries store energy to power electric motors. Vehicles that run only on electricity produce no tailpipe emissions. But there are emissions associated with the production of most of the country’s electricity.

Fueling plug-in vehicles with electricity is currently cost effective compared to gasoline, especially if drivers take advantage of off-peak utility rates offered by many utilities. Electricity costs can vary by region, type of generation, time of use, and access point. Learn about factors affecting electricity prices from the U.S. Energy Information Administration.

Electric Charging Stations

Many plug-in vehicle owners will do the majority of their charging at home (or at fleet facilities, in the case of fleets). Some employers offer access to charging at the workplace. In many states, plug-in vehicle drivers also have access to public charging stations at libraries, shopping centers, hospitals, and businesses. Charging infrastructure is rapidly expanding, providing drivers with the convenience, range, and confidence to meet more of their transportation needs with plug-in vehicles.

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Energy Security

In 2013, the United States imported about 33% of the petroleum it consumed, and transportation was responsible for nearly three-quarters of total U.S. petroleum consumption. With much of the world’s petroleum reserves located in politically volatile countries, the United States is vulnerable to price spikes and supply disruptions.

Using hybrid and plug-in electric vehicles instead of conventional vehicles can help reduce U.S. reliance on imported petroleum and increase energy security. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) typically use less fuel than similar conventional vehicles, because they employ electric-drive technologies to boost efficiency. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and all-electric vehicles (EVs) are both capable of using off-board sources of electricity, and almost all U.S. electricity is produced from domestic coal, nuclear energy, natural gas, and renewable resources.

Vehicle Performance

HEVs typically achieve better fuel economy and have lower fuel costs than similar conventional vehicles. For example, the 2012 Honda Civic Hybrid has an EPA combined city-and-highway fuel economy estimate of 44 miles per gallon, while the estimate for the conventional 2012 Civic (four cylinder, automatic) is 32 miles per gallon. Use the Find A Car tool on FuelEconomy.gov to compare fuel economy ratings of individual hybrid and conventional models.

PHEVs and EVs can reduce fuel costs dramatically because of the low cost of electricity relative to conventional fuel. Because they rely in whole or part on electric power, their fuel economy is measured differently than in conventional vehicles. Miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent (mpge) and kilowatt-hours (kWh) per 100 miles are common metrics. Depending on how they’re driven, today’s light-duty EVs (or PHEVs in electric mode) can exceed 100 mpge and can drive 100 miles consuming only 25-40 kWh.

The fuel economy of medium- and heavy-duty PHEVs and EVs is highly dependent on the load carried and the duty cycle, but in the right applications, they can maintain a strong fuel-cost advantage over their conventional counterparts as well.

In heavy-duty vehicles, dual-fuel, compression-ignited engines are slightly more fuel-efficient than spark-ignited dedicated natural gas engines. However, a dual-fuel engine increases the complexity of the fuel-storage system by requiring storage of both types of fuel.

Infrastructure and Vehicle Availability

PHEVs and EVs have the benefit of flexible fueling: Since the electric grid is available almost anywhere people park, PEVs can charge overnight at a residence (or a fleet facility), at a workplace, or at public charging stations. PHEVs have added flexibility, because they can also refuel with gasoline or diesel (or possibly other fuels in the future) when necessary.

Public charging stations are not as ubiquitous as gas stations, but charging equipment manufacturers, automakers, utilities, Clean Cities coalitions, municipalities, and government agencies are establishing a rapidly expanding network of charging infrastructure. The number of publicly accessible charging stations surpassed 8,800 in 2014, offering more than 21,000 outlets. Search for electric charging stations near you.

Public Health and Emissions

Hybrid and plug-in electric vehicles can have significant emissions benefits over conventional vehicles. HEV emissions benefits vary by vehicle model and type of hybrid power system. EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, and PHEVs produce no tailpipe emissions when in all-electric mode.

The life cycle emissions of an EV or PHEV depend on the sources of electricity used to charge it, which vary by region. In geographic areas that use relatively low-polluting energy sources for electricity production, plug-in vehicles typically have a life cycle emissions advantage over similar conventional vehicles running on gasoline or diesel. In regions that depend heavily on conventional fossil fuels for electricity generation, PHEVs and EVs may not demonstrate a strong life cycle emissions benefit. Use the Vehicle Cost Calculator to compare life cycle emissions of individual vehicle models in a given location.

Batteries

Like the engines in conventional vehicles, the advanced batteries in plug-in electric vehicles are designed for extended life but will wear out eventually. Several manufacturers of plug-in vehicles are offering 8-year/100,000 mile battery warranties. Test and simulation(PDF) results from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory indicate that today’s batteries may last 12 to 15 years in moderate climates (eight to 12 years in extreme climates).

Check with your dealer for model-specific information about battery life and warranties. Although manufacturers have not published pricing for replacement batteries, some are offering extended warranty programs with monthly fees. If the batteries need to be replaced outside the warranty, it may be a significant expense. Battery prices are expected to decline as battery technologies improve and production volumes increase.

chart (3)Ethanol

Ethanol is a renewable fuel made from various plant materials collectively known as “biomass.” More than 95% of U.S. gasoline contains ethanol, typically E10 (10% ethanol, 90% gasoline), to oxygenate the fuel and reduce air pollution.

Ethanol is also available as E85, or high-level ethanol blends. This fuel can be used in flexible fuel vehicles, which can run on high-level ethanol blends, gasoline, or any blend of these. Another blend, E15, has been approved for use in newer vehicles, and is slowing becoming available.

There are several steps involved in making ethanol available as a vehicle fuel:

  • Biomass feedstocks are grown, collected and transported to an ethanol production facility
  • Ethanol is produced from feedstocks at a production facility and then transported to a blender/fuel supplier
  • Ethanol is mixed with gasoline by the blender/fuel supplier to make E10, E15 or E85, and distributed to fueling stations

Ethanol as a vehicle fuel is not a new concept. Henry Ford and other early automakers suspected it would be the world’s primary fuel before gasoline became so readily available. Today, researchers agree ethanol could substantially offset our nation’s petroleum use. In fact, studies have estimated that ethanol and other biofuels could replace 30% or more of U.S. gasoline demand by 2030.

Fuel Properties

Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) is a clear, colorless liquid. It is also known as ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, and EtOH. (See Fuel Properties search.) Ethanol has the same chemical formula regardless of whether it is produced from starch- and sugar-based feedstocks, such as corn grain (as it primarily is in the United States), sugar cane (as it primarily is in Brazil), or from cellulosic feedstocks (such as wood chips or crop residues).

Ethanol has a higher octane number than gasoline, providing premium blending properties. Minimum octane number requirements prevent engine knocking and ensure drivability. Low-octane gasoline is blended with 10% ethanol to attain the standard 87 octane requirement. Ethanol is the main component in high-level ethanol blends. (See E85 Specification to learn more.)

Ethanol contains less energy per gallon than gasoline, to varying degrees, depending on the volume percentage of ethanol in the high-level blend. Per gallon, ethanol contains about 30% less energy than gasoline. E85 contains about 25% less energy than gasoline.

Ethanol Energy Balance

In the United States, ethanol is primarily produced from the starch in corn grain. Recent studies using updated data about corn production methods demonstrate a positive energy balance for corn ethanol, meaning that fuel production does not require more energy than the amount of energy contained in the fuel.

Cellulosic ethanol, which is produced from cellulosic feedstocks, is expected to improve the energy balance of ethanol, because cellulosic feedstocks are anticipated to require less fossil fuel energy to produce ethanol. Biomass used to power the process of converting non-food-based feedstocks into cellulosic ethanol is also expected to reduce the amount of fossil fuel energy used in production. Another potential benefit of cellulosic ethanol is that it results in lower levels of life cycle greenhouse gas emissions. (Find out more about emissions related to ethanol.)

For more information on the energy balance of ethanol, see the U.S. Department of Energy’s Bioenergy Technologies Office’s Ethanol Myths and Facts, and download the following documents.

  • Ethanol – The Complete Energy Lifecycle Picture(PDF)
  • 2008 Energy Balance for the Corn-Ethanol Industry(PDF)
  • Argonne National Laboratory’s GREET Model
  • DOE response to article, Use of U.S. Croplands for Biofuels Increases Greenhouse Gases through Emissions from Land Use Change(PDF)
  • Life-Cycle Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emission Implications of Brazilian Sugarcane Ethanol Simulated with the GREET Model(PDF) (Abstract)
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Depending heavily on foreign petroleum supplies puts the United States at risk for trade deficits and supply disruption. In 2005, 60% of petroleum products were imported, however, that was reduced to 33% in 2013 as a result of increased domestic crude supplies and ethanol production—imports would have reached 41% without ethanol (2014 Ethanol Industry Outlook). The Renewable Fuels Association’s 2013 Ethanol Industry Outlook(PDF)calculated that, from 2005 through 2012, ethanol increased from 1% to 10% of gasoline supply.

Vehicle Performance

A gallon of ethanol contains less energy than a gallon of gasoline. The result is lower fuel economy than a gallon of gasoline. The amount of energy difference varies depending on the blend. For example, E85 has about 27% less energy per gallon than gasoline (mileage penalty lessens as ethanol content decreases).

To learn more about fuel economy, GHG scores, and EPA smog scores for flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs), visit FuelEconomy.gov, or see the Clean Cities 2015 Vehicle Buyer’s Guide (Coming Soon).

Infrastructure and Vehicle Availability

Low-level blends of E10 or less require no special fueling equipment, and they can be used in any conventional gasoline vehicle.

The equipment used to store and dispense ethanol blends above E10 is the same equipment used for gasoline with modifications to some materials. See the Handbook for Handling, Storing, and Dispensing E85 and Other Ethanol-Gasoline Blends(PDF) for detailed information on compatible equipment.

FFVs (which can operate on E85, gasoline, or any blend of the two) are available nationwide as standard equipment with no incremental cost, making them an affordable alternative fuel vehicle option. Fueling stations offering E85 are predominately located in the Midwest. Find E85 fueling stations in your area.

Public Health and Emissions

The carbon dioxide released when ethanol is burned is balanced by the carbon dioxide captured when the crops are grown to make ethanol. This differs from petroleum, which is made from plants that grew millions of years ago. On a life cycle analysis basis, corn-based ethanol production and use reduces greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) by up to 52% compared to gasoline production and use. Cellulosic ethanol use could reduce GHGs by as much as 86%.

Job Impacts

Ethanol production creates jobs in rural areas where employment opportunities are needed. According to the Renewable Fuels Association, ethanol production in 2013 added more than 87,000 direct jobs across the country, $44 billion to the gross domestic product, and $30.7 billion in household income. (See the 2014 Ethanol Industry Outlook).

Biodiesel

Basics

Biodiesel is a renewable, biodegradable fuel that can be manufactured domestically from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant grease. It is a cleaner-burning replacement for petroleum diesel fuel.chart (4)

Biodiesel is a liquid fuel often referred to as B100 or neat biodiesel in its pure, unblended form. Like petroleum diesel, biodiesel is used to fuel compression-ignition engines, which run on petroleum diesel. See the table for biodiesel’s physical characteristics.

How well biodiesel performs in cold weather depends on the blend of biodiesel. The smaller the percentage of biodiesel in the blend, the better it performs in cold temperatures. Regular No. 2 diesel and B5 perform about the same in cold weather. Both biodiesel and No. 2 diesel have some compounds that crystallize in very cold temperatures. In winter weather, fuel blenders and suppliers combat crystallization by adding a cold flow improver. For the best cold weather performance, users should work with their fuel provider to ensure the blend is appropriate.

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The United States imports about a third of its petroleum, two-thirds of which is used to fuel vehicles in the form of gasoline and diesel. Depending heavily on foreign petroleum supplies puts the United States at risk for trade deficits, supply disruption, and price changes. Biodiesel is produced in the U.S. and used in conventional diesel engines, directly substituting for or extending supplies of traditional petroleum diesel.

Vehicle Performance

Biodiesel improves fuel lubricity and raises the cetane number of the fuel. Diesel engines depend on the lubricity of the fuel to keep moving parts from wearing prematurely. One unintended side effect of the federal regulations, which have gradually reduced allowable fuel sulfur to only 15 ppm and lowered aromatics content, has been to reduce the lubricity of petroleum diesel. To address this, the ASTM D975 diesel fuel specification was modified to add a lubricity requirement (a maximum wear scar diameter on the high-frequency reciprocating rig [HFRR] test of 520 microns). Biodiesel can increase fuel lubricity to diesel fuels at blend levels as low as 1%.

Before using biodiesel, be sure to check your engine warranty to ensure that higher-level blends of this alternative fuel don’t void or affect it. High-level biodiesel blends can also have a solvency effect in engines that previously used petroleum diesel.

Safety

Biodiesel causes far less damage than petroleum diesel if spilled or released to the environment. It is safer than petroleum diesel because it is less combustible. The flashpoint for biodiesel is higher than 130°C, compared with about 52°C for petroleum diesel. Biodiesel is safe to handle, store, and transport.

Public Health and Emissions

Engines manufactured in 2010 and later have to meet the same emissions standards, whether running on biodiesel, diesel, or any alternative fuel. Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) technology, which reduces nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions to near zero levels, makes this possible. These engines are some of the cleanest engines on the road, and the emissions from diesel fuel are comparable to those from biodiesel and are very low.

Using biodiesel reduces greenhouse gas emissions because carbon dioxide released from biodiesel combustion is offset by the carbon dioxide absorbed while growing the soybeans or other feedstock. B100 use reduces carbon dioxide emissions by more than 75% compared with petroleum diesel. Using B20 reduces carbon dioxide emissions by 15%.

Greenhouse gas and air-quality benefits of biodiesel are roughly commensurate with the blend. B20 use provides about 20% of the benefit of B100 use. B100 use could increase nitrogen oxides emissions, although it greatly reduces other emissions. Learn more about Biodiesel Emissions.

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